Oleh Nik Abdul Rakib Bin Nik Hassan
Kali
ini kita bincang tentang gambaran Keling dalam Kitab Sulalat al-Salatin. Dengan
kemukakan sebuah makaklah bertajuk “The Images of “Keling” in Sulalat
al-Salatin” tulisan Sdr. Abdur-Rahman Mohamed Amin, pensyarah di Universiti
Teknologi PETRONAS, Bandar Seri Iskandar, Perak, dn Prof Dato’ Dr. pensyarah
dan felo di beberapa universiti di Malaysia. Makalah ini diterbit di International
Journal of Social Science and Humanity, Vol. 4, No. 3, May 2014. Isi kandungan
makalah tersebut adala berikut:-
The
Images of “Keling” in Sulalat al-Salatin
Abstract—The
word “keling” in Malaysia has become a socially undesirable term and it has a
derogatory connotation for Malaysians of Indian origin. Though the word existed
in the Malay vocabulary since 15th century, there was an
attempt to remove it from the Malay dictionary due to its negative
connotations. Therefore, this study was conducted to analyze the images of
“keling” amongst the Malays circa 14th to 15th
centuries. The analysis on the discourse is to discover the semantics of the
word “keling” in the 17th century Malay epic Sulalat
al-Salatin. From this study, it was found that the historical relationship
between Malacca and “keling” started early than 15th
century. “Keling” played a very important role to help the administration of
the Malacca Malay Empire. Generally, the word “keling” has been used mostly
with a positive connotation in Sulalat al-Salatin.
Index Terms—Keling, Malacca, Malay Annals, Sulalat al-Salatin.
I.
INTRODUCTION
Malaysia
is a multiracial country comprising three major identities and ethnicities,
namely Malay, Chinese and Indian. The dominant race is the Malay. The existence
and interaction between all of these races can be seen clearly during the
existence of the Malacca Empire in 15th century. Since
that time, the Malay used the term “keling” to describe people coming from the
Indian subcontinent. It has been used widely in many classical Malay books such
as Sulalat al-Salatin, Hikayat Hang Tuah and Hikayat Raja Pasai.
Nowadays,
the term “keling” has been received in derogatory manner in Malaysia especially
among Malaysians of Indian origin. Though the word existed in Malay vocabulary
since the 15th century, many attempts have been made over
the years to erase it from the Malay vocabulary. One was by a group of Indian
Muslim community in Malaysia to remove the word “keling” from the third edition
of Kamus Dewan, a Malay dictionary which was published by the Malaysian
government agency, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka (DBP). It happened in July 30th 2003 when the chairman of Angkatan Pelopor
India Muslim Selangor and Wilayah Persekutuan (APIM), filed the summons in High
Court against Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka and five others
Manuscript
received May 29, 2013; revised
September 1, 2013. This work was
supported with the fund from Ministry of Higher Education in Malaysia under the
Exploratory Research Grant Scheme (ERGS) with a study entitled “The Keling in
Malay Discourses: The Study of Narratives in Selected Classical Malay Prose
Epics” (Project Code: 15-8200-317.) In addition, the
authors would like to thank Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS for providing support
for this research.
Abdur-Rahman
Mohamed Amin and Ahmad Murad Merican are with the Department of Management and
Humanities, Universiti Teknologi Petronas, Bandar Seri Iskandar, 31750,
Tronoh, Perak, Malaysia (e-mail: urrahman_amin@petronas.com.my,
amurad_noormerican@petronas.com.my).
over
the use of the term “keling” which, according to them, was offensive and
humiliating to Malaysians Indians. He said that the word was in conflict to the
Federal Constitution, National Principles (Rukun Negara) and the Publication
and Printing Presses Act 1984 (Amended 1987)
[1]. This phenomenon is not only happened in Malaysia, but also happened
in Singapore. On 1st August 1921, The
Straits Times, one of the newspapers in Singapore carried out a notice from
Municipal Office entitled “Kling Street-Change of Name”. In the advertisement,
it was announced that the name of the Kling Street will be changed to Chulia
Street starting from 1st January 1922 [2].
It
was believed that the name had been changed due to the suggestion by the Indian
Association of Singapore [3].
In
the modern Malay dictionary, the word “keling” is used to describe merchants
coming from the South Indian subcontinent including Kalinga and Telingana to
the Malay Peninsula as early as 3rd century [4]. In Northern Malay Peninsula, it also has been used to refer
to the Indian people in Malaysia who are Muslims. Shellabear, in the early 20th century, refers the word “keling” in his dictionary as “the
native of the eastern coast of British India, especially the Telugus and
Tamils” [5]. Winstedt added that this word has been taken
from the old kingdom of Kalinga in India [6]. Though both
of the dictionaries agreed that “keling” refers to the people coming from
Indian subcontinent, Shellabear does not specify the religion for this people,
which, before the 7th century, were Hindus. The Malay
dictionary mentioned that this word, especially in the Northern area of Malay
Peninsula, refers to the Indians who are Muslims. Therefore, in Shellabear‟s dictionary,
he used the term “Kling Islam” specifically to describe the Tamil who is a
Muslim [7].
The
existence of Indians in Malaysia can be traced back to the ancient times when
Hinduism and Buddhism were religions of the ruling elites and the population.
The discovery of Bujang Valley with the temples, which is situated near to the
Muda River in Kedah, showed that the area was the earliest Malay kingdom and it
had been greatly influenced by the Hindu-Buddhist religion. Inscriptions found
at the area was in Pallawa script, dated around 5th
century AD. Thousands of ceramic pieces from many places including India,
Middle East, China and Europe were also discovered, showing that from the
ancient time, the Malay Peninsula was one of the strategic locations for
maritime trading route between China, India, Middle East and Europe [8].
Later,
when the Malacca Empire was established in early 15th
century and gradually developed into the greatest emporium in the known world,
traders from all over the world were attracted to come to Malacca. This
cosmopolitan society was a polyglot of languages - more than 80 -
comprising Achinese, Burmese, Javanese, Minangkabaus, Bugis, Arabic,
Persian, Gujerati, Chinese, Siamese, and
Tamil. Traders as far as the Ryukyus in the proximity of Okinawa and
Southern Japan also called upon Malacca. They were populated in Malacca
especially in Upih, Bandar Hilir and Tanjung Pasir [9].
The
migration of Indians to the Malay Peninsular was very active during the time of
British colonization in Malaya. According to Kernial, the total number of
Indian immigration into Malaya under the British rule between 1786 and 1957 was
4 245 990 people [10]. The existence of the Indian migrants in the country was
very important. During the time of British rule in early 20th century, the
Indian community helped in the plantation, agricultural as well as in the
transportation sectors.
Many
studies had been conducted to study the history of Indian community in
Malaysia. It also includes their sub-community like “Jawi Peranakan” and
“Indian Muslims”. The “Jawi peranakan” refers to the family where the father
was a migrant from South Indian – mainly from the Coromandel Coast, and also
the Malabar, and the mother was Malay. The intermarriage between these two
races created another type of community which is famous in Penang. The study
about this community and how they assimilated into Malay society has been done
by Helen Fujimoto, and Halimah Mohd Said and Zainab Abdul Majid [11], [12].
The
existence of the community mostly in Penang was expected because of the
location of Penang as an important entreport during the British rule where all
of the immigrants from India will first arrive there before they moved to the
other states. A study by Ahmad Murad Merican about “keling” focused on the
Malay consciousness of the Indian and “jawi pekan” in socio-historical and
journalistic narratives. This study was based on Malay journalistic and
socio-historical narratives. It also made reference to the Malay Annals – the
Sulalat al-Salatin [13].
This
study picks up and presents a more focused investigation of the used of
“keling” in one of the classical Malay epics, Sulalat al-Salatin. In the
previous study about this Malay epics, many scholars have discussed about its
genesis and originality [14]-[17], but most of the studies focused more toward
the literature and linguistics point of view [18]-[21], and some of the other
studies discussed about it from the context of socio-cultural, politics and
historical perspectives [22]-[25]. Therefore, this study has been conducted to
analyze the context of using the word “keling” among Malay in Sulalat
al-Salatin.
II.
METHODOLOGY
The
study examines the Malay discourses on the word “keling” as used in Sulalat
al-Salatin or also known as Sejarah Melayu or Malay Annals. Originally, this
manuscript was written using classical Malay language in Jawi script. The main
theme of this manuscript relates to the genealogy and the history of Malacca
Kingdom that began in early fifteenth century until it was conquered by the
Portuguese in 1511. Since there are many versions of Sulalat al-Salatin, the
version which has been transcribed by Samad Ahmad is used in this study. The
word count of “keling” has been done and the context of using it is analyzed in
details. Consequently,
after
the results have been systematically analyzed, it leads to the discussion on
the Malay discourses and consciousness towards the word “keling” during the
Malacca Empire in 15th century.
III.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
In
Sulalat al-Salatin, the word “keling” was used 66 times in different contexts
[26]. Based on the story in Sulalat al-Salatin, there were many episodes where
the encounter between Malay and “keling” has been narrated. The word has been
combined together with the other word as a phrase and the phrase which has been
used most frequently was “benua keling”. Literally, the phrase refers to the
continent of the “keling” or the country where the “keling” comes from.
Nowadays, it is well known as India. It also has been used as “hulubalang
keling” which means warrior of Kalinga, the Indian Empire, “rakyat keling”
which means citizens of Kalinga, “raja keling” which means King of Kalinga,
“kain keling” and “belanga keling” where both phrases refers to the specific
textile and pot which originated from the Indian Empire.
A.
“Keling” Before the Empire of Malacca
Initially,
the story about “keling” appeared before the existence of Malacca Empire. It
was about Raja Suran, who was the King from India, came to the Malay Peninsula
in his military expedition with his soldiers. His army, together with large
numbers of elephants and horses, fought hard with the military from Siam and
finally, the King succeeded to kill Raja Chulan, who was the King for Siam.
Later, Raja Suran married with Prince Onang Kiu, the daughter of Raja Chulan,
and the army marched towards Temasik, or well-known today as Singapore.
The
journey of his military expedition stopped at Temasik. But Raja Suran has the
ambition to continue his journey until they reach China. When the news arrived
at the Kingdom of China, in order to avoid the war and to protect his country,
the Emperor of China sent a ship filled with rusty and small needles with old
sailormen to Temasik. When the ship arrived at Temasik, Raja Suran ordered his
men to get the information from the Chinese ship on the distance between
Temasik and China. The old sailors explained that the distance was very long
due to the fact that when they started the journey, they were at the young age.
In addition, the big steel in their ship had changed to a small one due to the
long journey. When Raja Chulan heard about this information, he thought that
China was still very far away from Temasik and he suggested that they should
end their military expedition and return back to their homeland in India [27].
From
the story above, the term “keling” has been used since long time ago to refer
to the people coming from the Indian subcontinent. It has been described that
they were skillful fighters from the great Kingdom in India and were involved
in the process of colonization and expansion of Indian Empire until it reached
Southeast Asia. The armed forces were formidable in both land and sea warfare
and won against the Kingdom of Gangga Nagara in Perak, Langgiu in Johore and
Temasik in Singapore. In addition, the author mentioned that Raja Suran built a
kingdom at “benua keling”
or
at the Indian subcontinent namely Bijaya Negara. According to the translation
of Sulalat al-Salatin by Brown, the word “keling” in Malay was translated as
“Kalinga men.” Keling King has been referred to as the King of Kalinga. Thus,
from Brown‟s translation,
he believes that the word “keling” specifically refers to the “Kalinga” empire
in India [28].
B.
The Intercultural Marriage of “Keling”
According
to Sulalat al-Salatin, Tajitram Shah, the King for “benua keling” or Indian
sub-continent, was a descendent from the King of Alexander Zulqarnain. At one
time, his ship was stranded at Belambang Majut or known today as Bangkahulu in
Sumatera, Indonesia. Later, whenever the King at Belambang Majut knew that
Tajitram Shah was a prince from India, he offered his daughter, Raden Sendari,
to marry Tajitram Shah. They were blessed with four children namely Ratna Dewi,
Seri Dewi, Maniaka and Nila Karna. He stayed in Belambang Majut until his
people came from Canda Kani to save him and bring him back to India. He brought
back with him both of his sons. Before that, after the Emperor of China heard
about the famous King from “benua keling” who was at Belambang Majut, the
Emperor wanted to have a relationship with him through marriage. He sent his
envoy from China to propose to marry his daughter. Tajitram Shah agreed and he
sent his eldest daughter, Seri Dewi to China. The other daughter, Ratna Dewi,
was proposed by Majapahit in Java [27].
In
this story, the word “benua keling” has been clearly used as a reference to the
sub-continent of India. It is believed that there was a great Kingdom in India
and it was so famous until the Emperor of China also wanted to have the
inter-monarch relationship with this Kingdom through marriage. The “keling”
rulers also sent envoys with tribute to the other rulers with special gifts. As
a result, the image of the “keling” becomes better due to the diplomatic
relationship with the other great kingdoms. In fact, the diplomatic
relationship at this time between the kingdoms is full with prestige and status
and it only belongs to the elite class in that society.
C.
“Keling” in the Kingdom of Singapore
The
relationship between the Kingdom of India and Singapore started when the ruler
of Singapore, Seri Teri Buana wanted his son, Raja Kecil Besar to marry
Princess Nila Pancadi, the daughter of Jambuga Rama Mudaliar, the ruler of
“benua keling”. When Seri Teri Buana sent his envoy to “benua keling”, headed
by Aria Bupala and Maha Indera Bijaya, the proposal had been accepted and they
went back to Singapore to inform the good news to their ruler. The King of
“benua keling”, Jambuga Rama Mudaliar, told the envoy that he will go and send
his daughter to Singapore for the marriage. Later, Jambuga Rama Mudaliar
together with his family and forty warriors headed by Andul Nina Mara Kulina, board
on the ship to send the princess for the marriage in Singapore. There were
around 500 hand-maiden accompanying the princess. The marriage between Raja
Kecil Besar and Princess Nila Pancadi was successfully completed. In the other
episode, the King of “benua keling” sent his warrior, Nadi Bija Niakra to
Singapore to challenge
the
famous warrior, Badang. They sailed from India with seven ships and if their
warrior lost in the challenge, all of the ships will become the property of
Singapore kingdom [27].
Based
on the story, the great kingdom of India was clearly referred to as “benua
keling” or the continent of “keling.” The relationship was so close with the
other kingdoms in Southeast Asia especially through intercultural marriage. The
“keling” Empire has their own language which is totally different with the
language of people from Singapore. Therefore, these two Kingdoms needed a
translator to translate the letter from each other when it was read in the
court. In addition, it showed how international relations between the “keling”
Empire and Singapore develop in the past. The exchanges of envoys, gifts and
letters were normal to establish an international network between the regions.
In short, the image of “keling” was portrayed positively based on the good
relationship they have with the other kingdom like Singapore.
D.
“Keling” in the Malacca Empire
During
the reign of Sultan Muhammad Shah, an Indian prince, who was a Muslim came from
the Indian subcontinent to Malacca together with his soldiers in his fleet of
seven ships. His name was Mani Purindan and his father was the ruler for a
kingdom where they call it as Pahili, located in the Indian subcontinent.
Sultan Muhammad Shah was very impressed with him and appointed him as one of
his ministers. Later on, he married with the daughter of Seri Nara Diraja and
was blessed with two children, namely Tun Ali and Tun Ratna Wati. It was
believed that Mani Purindan was the first “keling” or Tamil-Muslim to be
appointed as one of the ministers in the Malacca court. In the story, it was
also mentioned that Sultan Muhammad Shah was married to Tun Ratna Wati, the
daughter of Mani Purindan, and they were blessed with a son named Raja Kassim.
After Sultan Muhammad died, Raja Ibrahim was appointed as the Sultan, but later
on he was replaced with Raja Kassim who was supported by Seri Nara Diraja Tun
Ali and Bendahara. Raja Kassim used the title Sultan Muzaffar Shah after he
became the Sultan. Therefore, Sultan Muzaffar Shah was the first Malay King
where his mother was a daughter from Tamil-Malay mixed marriage [27].
From
this important story, Mani Purindan was a prince coming from the “benua keling”
or Indian continent and he was a Muslim. He had been given the opportunity to
serve as one of the ministers in the court of Sultan Muhammad Shah, where
Malacca at that time had adopted Islam as official religion. He got married to
the daughter of Seri Nara Diraja, one of the ministers in the Malacca Court and
his family had been accepted as part of the Malacca society at that time
through the process of assimilation with local culture, which deprives the
family of a separate Malay identity. As a result, the people of Malacca can
accept Raja Kassim or also known as Sultan Muzaffar Shah as their King even
though his mother was not from “pure” Malay family but from Keling-Malay mixed
marriage.
This
story was very important to prove that the prince from “benua keling” had been
accepted as the minister in the court of Sultan Muhammad due to their ability
and charisma as a leader. As a result of the appointment as the minister in
Malacca
Empire, they were socially accepted and respected as the upper levels of the
society and after the assimilation through marriage, they had been totally
accepted as part of the elite people in Malacca.
E.
“Keling” Before the Fall of Malacca Empire
During
the reign of Sultan Mahmud, he sent one of his warriors, Hang Nadim, to sail to
the “benua keling” to buy a special textile made in India. At the end of the
story, Hang Nadim failed to bring all of it back to Malacca due to the
shipwreck which happened near Ceylon. During this time, it can be understood
that India was very famous with high quality textiles. The Indian people or
“keling” have the creativity as textile designers to design cloth according to
the request from the customer.
In
addition, during the reign of Sultan Mahmud, there were two people who had been
referred to as “keling”, namely Raja Mendaliar and Kitul. Raja Mendaliar was a
Shahbandar or port administrator or harbor master in Malacca, one of the
important ministers in the court of Sultan Mahmud and was very rich. The
Shahbandar was the official in charge of the shipping systems and commercial
transactions including the tax collection. He was also the chief of all the
sea-captains [27]. Based on the story, Raja Mendaliar had been appointed as one
of the officials in the court of Sultan Mahmud to represent traders from India.
In fact, the Shahbandar was the representative of the foreign traders from the
various communities in Malacca. Therefore, many Shahbandar were needed to
represent different groups of traders including the traders from India. In
addition, Malacca at that time was very busy with so many ships coming to the
port. It was so prosperous until the Shahbandar, who is not among the highest
rank officials in Malacca was declared as among the richest people in Malacca
[27].
Kitul
was another “keling” who was mentioned in Sulalat al-Salatin. He was from the
family of Nina Sura Dewana. Kitul has a debt amounting 600 gram of gold with
Raja Mendaliar. In the story, Kitul was a man who spread slander to Raja
Mendaliar that Nina Sura Dewana together with the Bendahara, who was the chief
executive for Malacca officials, wanted to kill Raja Mendaliar. As a
compensation of this important information, Raja Mendaliar eliminated all of the
debts from Kitul. To stop the conspiracy, he went to meet Khoja Hasan with his
gold and jewels to bribe him. Khoja Hasan, the Laksamana who was responsible
for the civil and military duties of Malacca, was bribed to spread the new
slander to the Sultan that the Bendahara wanted to seize the power of the
Sultan. As the result, after the Sultan knew about the news from Laksamana
Khoja Hasan, he ordered Tun Sura Diraja and Tun Indera Segara to execute the
Bendahara and his family members including Seri Nara Diraja, Tun Hasan
Temenggung and Tun Ali due to the false information from Laksamana [27].
The
story about Kitul was among the factors that lead to the downfall of Malacca
Empire. Malacca lost its Bendahara, together with the other important great
lords namely Seri Nara Diraja and Tun Hasan Temenggung. Raja Mendeliar and
Kitul were also executed after the Sultan knew about the slander. The empire
became unstable with so many slanders spread among the officials in the court
of Sultan Mahmud and
at
the end the Sultan had the difficulty to control and trust his officials.
Before
the fall of Malacca Empire to the Portuguese in 1511, the internal problem of
leadership in administration contributed greatly to its downfall. The images of
“keling” represented by Bendahara Tun Mutahir, Raja Mendeliar and Kitul were
negatively displayed in this story. We find the image of the “keling” has
evolved. The “keling’s” later representation differed from the earlier ones.
IV.
CONCLUSION
Based
on the discussion above, the word “keling” has been used regularly in Sulalat
al-Salatin mostly in a positive way. “Keling” has been portrayed as the people
coming from Indian sub-continent who have a very great Kingdom. They existed
before the empire of Malacca was founded in early 15th century. They have a
very long relationship with the Malay Archipelago through commercial trading,
migration and expansion of their Empire. The people who migrated from this
Kingdom to Malacca in 15th century were mostly from the higher social status such
as merchants, sailors, warriors and elites and they also became part of the
administrators in Malacca Empire. Eventually, through inter-cultural marriage
and assimilation, they became part of the Malay aristocracy especially in the
office of the Bendahara and extremely influential in Malacca administration.
Furthermore, the “keling” people have been reported as the largest immigrant
communities in Malacca at that time. Unfortunately, at the end of the story,
the characters of “keling” have been narrated negatively due to their political
mischief of spreading slanders in the court of Sultan Mahmud. Their actions
gave a very high impact to the stability of Malacca Empire and not long after
that, the Malacca Empire was conquered by the Portuguese in 1511. That episode
was to be clearly etched in the Malay consciousness throughout centuries to
come.
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